In premenopausal females,  vaginal bleeding is considered abnormal when menstrual cycles last longer than 7 days or when there is excessive uterine bleeding (more than 80 cc/cycle). Vaginal bleeding is also…

Human papillomavirus (HPV)  infection,  herpes simplex,  and herpes zoster (“shingles”) are occasionally found in breast cancer patients.

Trichomonas vaginitis is the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted disease in women.  The disease is caused by a flagellated protozoan, Trichomonas vaginalis, and primarily affects women during the reproductive years.…

Among patients receiving standard or high-dose chemotherapy for breast cancer, vulvovaginitis is a frequent reason for referral to the Gynecologic Oncology Center. Vulvovaginitis can occur during or after chemotherapy and is thought to…

If estrogen stimulates the growth of malignant breast cells,  one might be concerned that subclinical disease may be fueled by HRT and grow rapidly, resulting in a…

The principle that women who have been treated for breast cancer should avoid exogenous estrogen has been an area of general agreement and standard practice for many years; it…

HRT gained wide acceptance over 30 years ago and gradually became a staple in the treatment of estrogen deficiency.  Patients were pleased by the relief of menopausal symptoms offered by HRT, and…

Because of treatment with chemotherapy, women with a history of breast cancer are more likely to be exposed to estrogen deficiency and often experience estrogen deficiency for a longer duration than women…

Each year, over 180,000 females in the United States are diagnosed with breast cancer. Of women living to the age of 90, one in nine will be treated for breast…

The screening that was discussed in the previous section is actually considered a form of prevention. By definition, secondary prevention refers to any modality that leads to the earlier detection of a breast cancer,…

The ultimate goal of widespread screening for breast cancer is a reduction in mortality from the disease. Toward this end, appropriate screening for breast cancer involves both the physician and the patient. In general,…

Gynecomastia is a common condition and represents a benign proliferation of glandular tissue of the male breast. Gynecomastia occurs in three different age groups - neonatal, pubertal and elderly. Due to transplacental passage of estrogen, transient…

Mondor disease of the breast is rare and is a superficial thrombophlebitis of the lateral thoracic or superior thoraco-epigastric veins.

Clinical Features
Patients usually present with a tender subcutaneous cord along the distribution of…

Granulomatous lesions of the breast are rare. They can be secondary to systemic conditions (sarcoidosis), infections (mycobacterium, fungal), or reactions to foreign material (silicone, narcotics).

Clinical Features
A detailed history may…

Sclerosing lymphocytic lobulitis may occur in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

Clinical Features
Patients classically present with a firm to hard, irregular, palpable, breast mass that can be difficult to…

Fibromatosis of the breast is similar to fibromatosis elsewhere in the body (e.g., desmoid tumors).

Clinical Features
Patients can present with a palpable mass that mimics carcinoma and is sometimes associated with…

Proliferation of epithelial cells lining the terminal duct-lobular unit is known as epithelial hyperplasia. The degree of hyperplasia can be graded as mild, moderate or florid. There may be associated atypical features. The significance of…

Sclerosing adenosis is associated with distortion of the terminal duct-lobular unit and should be regarded as an aberration of breast involution.

Clinical Features
Patients may present with either a breast lump or breast pain,…

Radial scars are often detected in screening mammography (0.9 per 1,000 women screened) or as incidental findings in excision breast biopsy for another pathology. Their importance lies in that they may mimic carcinoma.

Radiology
…

Fat necrosis of the breast may be associated with a history of trauma (35-40%) and is an important clinical entity because it can mimic breast carcinoma. Surgical trauma secondary to biopsy or…

Breast hematoma can occur secondary to surgical intervention, including FNAB, core biopsy and excision biopsy. The most common cause of postoperative hematoma is inadequate hemostasis. Breast hematoma also occurs after minor trauma to the breast…