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A. Case Management, Diet, and Exercise Training
Thirty to 50 percent of congestive heart failure patients who are hospitalized will be readmitted within 3-6 months. Strategies to prevent clinical deterioration,…

A. Symptoms
The symptoms of cardiac failure have been discussed in part in earlier sections. The most common complaint is shortness of breath, chiefly exertional dyspnea at first and then progressing…

The treatment of chronic heart failure is discussed here. Acute heart failure and pulmonary edema are discussed in the next section.

A. Correction of Reversible Causes
The major reversible causes…

A commonly used method for assessing heart disease risk appears to underestimate women’s risk for significant atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) when they have a family history of early heart…

Introduction
Acute coronary syndromes comprise the spectrum of unstable cardiac ischemia from unstable angina to acute myocardial infarction. Rather than the traditional nomenclature of unstable angina, non-Q wave and Q wave myocardial…

Abnormalities of cardiac rhythm and conduction can be lethal (sudden cardiac death), symptomatic (syncope, near syncope, dizziness, or palpitations), or asymptomatic. They are dangerous to the extent that they reduce cardiac output, so that perfusion of…

Stress testing is one of the most widely used tools in cardiology. It provides diagnostic and prognostic information in patients with suspected or known coronary heart disease, and is a useful tool for assessing the…

Coronary heart disease, or atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, is the commonest cause of cardiovascular disability and death in the United States. Men are more often affected than women by an overall ratio of 4:1,…

Congenital lesions account for only about 2% of heart disease that presents in adulthood. Only the most common acyanotic lesions are discussed here. The review articles cited below provide further discussion of the major…

While most cases of valvular disease in the United States were at one time due to rheumatic heart disease (still true in developing countries), other causes are now more common. The typical findings of…

The chest x-ray provides information about heart size, the pulmonary circulation (with characteristic signs suggesting both pulmonary artery or pulmonary venous hypertension), primary pulmonary disease, and aortic abnormalities. The echocardiogram provides much more reliable information…

By Barry M. Massie, MD, & Thomas M. Amidon, MD

The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a visual representation of the electrical impulses generated by the heart with each beat. Ever since Willem Einthoven developed the ECG in the early 1900s, it has become an invaluable tool…

A thorough physical examination can provide clues to the presence and severity of cardiovascular disease, and alert one to the presence of life-threatening conditions even before the results of any diagnostic…

Palpitations are the subjective awareness of the heart beating and are usually the result of a change in heart rate, heart rhythm, or the force of cardiac contraction.

Etiologies

A wide variety of disorders can…

Dyspnea is an uncomfortable awareness of breathing. It is a common symptom of cardiac and pulmonary diseases, and may also result from neurological conditions, chest wall problems, and anxiety states.

Differential Diagnosis of dyspnea (see…

History and Physical Examination
Despite major innovations in diagnostic technology and advances in medical therapy, a well-performed history and physical examination remain the cornerstone of good patient care. In addition to providing important clues…

Alveolar-arterial gradient = [(P_atm - P_H2O)(FIO₂) - (PCO₂/0.8)] - P_a02

Blood pressure = CO x SVR

CO = SV x HR (units: 1/min)

Chest Pain

• Angina
• Myocardial infarction
• Aortic dissection
• Pericarditis
• Pulmonary embolism
• Pneumonia
• Pleurisy
• Pneumothorax
• Pulmonary hypertension
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease
• Esophageal spasm
• Costochondritis
• Rib fracture
• Anxiety

A₂: aortic component of the second heart sound
ABE: acute bacterial endocarditis
ABI: ankle-brachial index
ACS: acute coronary syndrome
ACE: angiotensin-converting enzyme
AF: atrial…

According to researchers a new heart failure drug designed especially for blacks could reduce the amount it costs to treat the disease by as much as 34 percent.