Table 11-11

Improper blood pressure measurement

Volume overload and pseudotolerance

Excess sodium intake

Volume retention from kidney disease

Inadequate diuretic therapy

Drug-induced or other causes

Nonadherence

Inadequate doses

Inappropriate combinations

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors

Cocaine, amphetamines, other illicit drugs

Sympathomimetics (decongestants, anorectics)

Oral contraceptives

Adrenal steroids

Cyclosporine and tacrolimus

Erythropoietin

Licorice (including some chewing tobacco)

Selected over-the-counter dietary supplements and medicines (eg, ephedra, ma haung, bitter orange)

Associated conditions

Obesity

Excess alcohol intake

Identifiable causes of hypertension (see Table 11-3)

From Chobanian AV et al: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003;289:2560.