Table 18.2. Risk factors for esophageal cancer

Chronic tobacco use

Heavy alcohol consumption

History of head and neck malignancy

History of radiation therapy

Chronic esophagitis (most common in Asia and Africa)

Chronic stricture (lye ingestion and radiation)

Tylosis (palmar and plantar hyperkeratosis)

Plummer-vinson syndrome

Achalasia

Dietary/nutritional

Deficiency in carotene, vitamins C and E, riboflavin, selenium, and zinc

Low intake of fruits and vegetables

High intake of red meat and nitrate-containing foods

Consumption of scalding hot beverages

Barrett's esophagus and GERD

Obesity

Cigarette smoking

Alcohol consumption

Scleroderma

History of colon cancer

Medications: theophylline and β-agonists (long-term use >5 years)